PHIL 201 Study Guide Essay Example for Free

PHIL 201 Study Guide Essay View and take notes on the presentation, â€Å"An Overview of Issues in Contemporary Justification, Part 1. † What are 3 characteristics of a person’s noetic structure? The sum total of everything that person believes It recognizes the differing degress of certainty, firmness, and conviction with which people hold their beliefs. Characterized by how beliefs are related together. Explain coherentism and the 3 problems with it. Coherentism: All beliefs fall into one category. No beliefs are more foundational than the others. Problems: Circularity: How do I justify my belief in P? It coheres with Q. Isolation Problem: Coherentism isolates my beliefs from the external world. Plurality: It is possible to have 2 coherent systems that are logically incompatible. Read chapter 4 of Epistemology: Becoming Intellectually Virtuous, â€Å"Foundationalism. † As you do, consider the following questions and points: What is the root idea of foundationalism? Each of us holds a set of beliefs basically or immediately while we hold other beliefs non basically or mediately. Why would one adopt a foundationalist approach to justification? Because they are epistemic engies of our noetic structures, imparting to all of our non-basic beliefs, while not themselves requiring justification from any other beliefs – this support goes just one way. What is the regress argument? Taking for granted the general reliability of your conscious faculties, and indeed must take them for granted. What are the 3 basic components of foundationalism? Basic or immediate beliefs- Form the bedrock of what all we believe undergirding everything else we are justified in believing. Mediate or non-basic beliefs- Everything else we believe Basing Relation- Specifies how the epistemic merit of our basic beliefs is to be transferred to out non-basic beliefs. What are the characteristics of strong foundationalism? Specifically explain: The 3 conditions for a basic belief. Must be self-evidently true: those we see to be true immediately, without the benefit of deliberation or argument, merely when we understand the term of the claim in question. Must be Incorrigible: The belief in question is one that is impossible to believe and be mistaken about. Evident to the Senses The means by which basic beliefs support non-basic beliefs. Entailment is the only logical relation that preserves certainty. If one starts with self-evidently true starting points and accepts only what can be validly derived from the same, one thereby insures that one’s entire set of beliefs is untainted and error free. Four â€Å"additional† features of foundationalism. One cannot claim to have knowledge simply by asserting that one knows One must be inwardly cognizant that one’s claims to knowledge is genuine. One must be prepared to show that this is the case. What are the main problems with foundationalism? Note: This section can be challenging; try to understand the main points raised; don’t be concerned about all the details except as a way to understand the following main points: Problems: One’s beliefs in the reliability of one’s senses or memory or consciousness; none of these beliefs is either self evident or incorrigible or evident to the senses, yet they are held as properly basic by virtually everyone. Any acceptance of supposedly pure and certain basic beliefs makes use of various background assumptions or information that compromises their certainty and undermines their basicality. Why only these conditions for a basic belief? Claims that foundationalism solves the regress argument fail (the arbitrariness of stopping points). Other means of supporting beliefs than just deduction/induction (best explanation, retroduction, concurrence, etc. ). The security vs. content problem. The strict demands for four unimpeachable certainty leave one with so small a set of basic beliefs that they can’t possibly bear the heavy weight of all we believe. Other problems (excessive individualism, access requirements, noetic effects of sin). Pg 95. What are the similarities and differences between strong and modest foundationalism? Specifically: What is primae facie certainty? One’s foundational beliefs are not necessarily immune to any conceivable doubt they can be overridden but they are perfectly acceptable unless one has a good reason for thinking they have been undermined. Four of Reid’s contingent truths. The thoughts of which I am conscience are thoughts of a being I call myself. Those things really happened which I distinctly remember. Those things really do exist which we distinctly perceive by our senses, and are what we perceive them to be. What is to be will probably be like what has been in similar circumstances. Reid’s reliabilism of first principles. For our evidence concerning reliability would have to include deliverances of the faculties whose reliability we are accumulating evidence for. On behalf of his foundational principles, they can be correctly identified by their accompanying marks or signs. If someone persists in requesting additional assurances over and above the usual marks accompanying properly based beliefs, then the person holding such beliefs can only respond with genuine bewilderment. Two weaknesses with modest foundationalism. Reid may have underestimated the capacity for thinkers of sound mind and sincere will to disagree about alleged, philosophical first principles. The belief in God can be held in a basic belief. Alvin Plantinga’s belief in God as properly basic. The belief can be justifiably held in the manner of a first principle, that is w/out the benefit of argumentative support. Terms Make sure you can explain the following terms and concepts: Indefeasible- Not able to be lost, annulled, or overturned. Retroduction- A king of reasoning from the best explanation. It is reducible neither to induction or deduction. Concurrence- Observations that cumulate in his belief. Necessary First Principles- They are self-evidently justified, being believed merely upon being understood. Must have these. Contingent First Principles- Not self-evidently justified. Dependent upon something. Doxastic Assumption- A theory that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs.

Saturday Morning Visitors :: Descriptive Essay Examples, narrative

  Saturday Morning Visitors          As far as I am concerned, the unpardonable sin is someone dropping by our house before noon on Saturdays.    Since I go to school and work too, Saturday is the only day of the week on which I can be lazy and sleep late. Therefore, I am late getting my housework done. By Saturday, my house is completely in ruins; anyone who is blessed with a six-year-old boy can understand what I am talking about. As an example, it is not uncommon to walk into the living room and find an old ragged sheet or quilt stretched across a couple of chairs-this serves as his tent. This is the exact time some people decide to come by to see us. As the visitors come in, I hurriedly snatch the tent down, but immediately wish that I hadn't for under it are Chewbacca, Hans Solo, Luke Skywalker, C3PO. And R2D2. Trying nonchalantly to push these Star Wars creatures aside with my bare foot, I suddenly stop. My foot has come in contact with some unknown substance-it is oozing up between my toes. I look down and silently blaspheme the makers of Green Slime. As I gently remove my foot from this green wad, some of i t continues to cling between my toes. Pretending that it doesn't bother me, I lead our guests into the dining room, hoping it will be more presentable. Much to my dismay, it does not look any better, for there, on the table, are the remains of my daughter's midnight snack. The remains include a black banana peeling that looks like a relic from The Dark Ages; an empty glass with a dried milk ring; two stale blueberry pop-ups; and a pile of orange-red carrot peelings. My daughter is a border-line vegetarian, so the latter does not surprise me.    Having removed the residue from the table and seated our early birds, I am brought to the second reasons why I dislike having company on Saturday mornings. Remembering my in-bred Southern manners, I ask if I can get our guests something to eat or drink-when it hits me like a two-by-four-I have nothing to offer. This is grocery shopping day. Saturday Morning Visitors :: Descriptive Essay Examples, narrative   Saturday Morning Visitors          As far as I am concerned, the unpardonable sin is someone dropping by our house before noon on Saturdays.    Since I go to school and work too, Saturday is the only day of the week on which I can be lazy and sleep late. Therefore, I am late getting my housework done. By Saturday, my house is completely in ruins; anyone who is blessed with a six-year-old boy can understand what I am talking about. As an example, it is not uncommon to walk into the living room and find an old ragged sheet or quilt stretched across a couple of chairs-this serves as his tent. This is the exact time some people decide to come by to see us. As the visitors come in, I hurriedly snatch the tent down, but immediately wish that I hadn't for under it are Chewbacca, Hans Solo, Luke Skywalker, C3PO. And R2D2. Trying nonchalantly to push these Star Wars creatures aside with my bare foot, I suddenly stop. My foot has come in contact with some unknown substance-it is oozing up between my toes. I look down and silently blaspheme the makers of Green Slime. As I gently remove my foot from this green wad, some of i t continues to cling between my toes. Pretending that it doesn't bother me, I lead our guests into the dining room, hoping it will be more presentable. Much to my dismay, it does not look any better, for there, on the table, are the remains of my daughter's midnight snack. The remains include a black banana peeling that looks like a relic from The Dark Ages; an empty glass with a dried milk ring; two stale blueberry pop-ups; and a pile of orange-red carrot peelings. My daughter is a border-line vegetarian, so the latter does not surprise me.    Having removed the residue from the table and seated our early birds, I am brought to the second reasons why I dislike having company on Saturday mornings. Remembering my in-bred Southern manners, I ask if I can get our guests something to eat or drink-when it hits me like a two-by-four-I have nothing to offer. This is grocery shopping day.

American History 1946-1976

The United States is a nation of immigrants. The resident population of the country comprises people who came from abroad or are descendents from overseas. Black were said to be some of the earlier migrants but they were considered to be slaves prior to the Emancipation Proclamation. The transformation of the American society is not possible without the outburst of population influx. The industrial revolution made it possible for transportation and communication, resulting in a massive economic transformation for America. In the early part of American history, immigration rules had been lax.It was not until 1819 when the first immigration statistics had been collected when the topic of immigration was laid on the table for lawmakers (McClenaghan, 1988, p. 170). Given the abundance of fertile land in the country which necessitated workers, immigration was deemed on a positive note. However, the end of the Civil War saw closing of the land frontier. There was no shortage of manpower an d the sudden boom of population and spirit of nationalism had started to take its toll among immigrants. The end of Civil War was witnessed by European immigrants who had already settled in the county starting 1820.The Irish, for instance, had left Ireland due to the severe British regimen ruling in their country (May, 1989, p. 479). Likewise, the European War saw many Italians, Greeks, Polish, Germans and other non-English speaking people coming to America. In Unit I, which covers the 1865- 1876, life for American immigrants mirrored the agony of reconstruction the country was facing at that time. As the country was struggling with picking the pieces of an embattled nation, immigrants continued to flock America. Some southern and northern states had put up bureaus to draw immigrants.The Contract Labor Law of 1864 stated that the federal government would assist an immigrant in his journey by a â€Å"lien on his or her wages† (Tindall and Shi, 1999, p. 938). The law was revoke d in 1868. Majority of non-English speaking immigrants toiled as laborers, porters, peddlers, while those who spoke English were able to find higher paying jobs. By 1870, the country had around 39 million people, 3 million of whom were immigrants or those born abroad and settled in America (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, and Williams, 1991, p. 549).There were also immigrants from Asia. In the early 1850s, Chinese immigrants went to California to work in gold mines (Brinkley, 2003, p. 446). By 1865, more than 12,000 Chinese had found work in building the transcontinental railroad. The Central Pacific which was then responsible for building the western part of the road had 90% of Chinese in its labor force. One social issue they faced was discrimination. While it was true that corporations preferred hiring Chinese because of their tenacity and commitment to work, many Americans resented this.More jobs were being given to Chinese because they were also willing to work for fewer wages, som ething which did not sit well with Americans. As one editor of the New York Nation said, the Chinese were responsible for creating a â€Å"disgusting habits of thrift, industry and self-denial† (Tindall and Shi, 1999, p. 947). With the country tiding in on Reconstruction, the economy was not in a good shape and Americans blamed the Chinese and other immigrants (May, 1989, p. 481). Discrimination in California, where most Chinese immigrants had taken residence, started to brew.The Workingmen’s Party, for instance, was intense in goading the government to pass laws to victimize Chinese. The Sidewalk Ordinance which banned people carrying their merchandise on a pole to walk on the sidewalk (p. 481). At that time only Chinese carried their goods this way. The discrimination was this obvious: the anti-Chinese sentiment was growing. The Panic of 1873 fueled this tension and the Congress soon acted with an exclusion act in 1879, which ban the import of Chinese workers (Bragdo n, McCutchen, and Ritchie, 1996, p. 532).In response to the issue, the Chinese did nothing, continuing to work, toiling in vast drainage and irrigation projects (Brinkley, 2003, p 446). It was initially rejected by President Hayes citing the Burlingame Treaty of 1868, which made China a â€Å"most-favored nation† when it comes to travel and immigration (O’Neill, 2002, p. 240; Tindall and Shi, 1999, p. 947). However, as constructions of railroads were finished, demand for laborers waned and in 1882, President Arthur approved a ten-year suspension called the Chinese Exclusion Act. In 1902, the act suspended indefinitely.The outcome was limitation in the number of Chinese immigrants coming in to the country but their number had already increased due to marriage and birth within their community. The tide of American immigrants continued from 1877- 1920. In fact, it was during this period where around 14 million Europeans made America their residence (May, 1989, p. 482). It used to be that immigrants came prior to 1890 came from northern and western Europe. However, the year 1885 saw a tremendous increase of immigrants coming from southern and Eastern Europe (Bragdon, McCutchen and Ritchie, 1996, p.529). Furthermore, America welcomed immigrants from Canada, Mexico, Latin America and Japan (Brinkley, 2003, p. 502). Chinese immigrants, despite the Chinese Exclusion Act, along with the Japanese continued to flock America (p. 502). In 1880, there were around 75,000 Chinese in California, 1/9th of the state’s population (Tindall and Shi, 1999, p. 946). In 1870, the number of Japanese immigrants were roughly about 56; however by 1900-1909, the figures increased significantly to an estimate 7000 (p. 481).By 1890, four out of five people living in New York was born abroad; the state also become home to more Irish than the Irish people living in Ireland (p. 937). The appeal of America was probably due to the hardship their respective countries were expe rienced. The surge in immigration was responsible for the growth of the country, especially its urban growth as most immigrants were lured by the city, where the realization of the American dream had already begun. Europeans crossed the Atlantic in hopes of a better future in the cities of America (Jordan and Litwack, 1991, p. 504).As the new immigrants began to settle in the cities, they started to live in homogenous neighborhoods. Thus, there existed a Little Italy and a Jewish Lower East Side on the side of New York and Chinatown. These small enclaves allowed the immigrants to retain their sense of community. In 1920, Chicago had around 1 7 Little Italy colonies spread out in the city (p. 943). Ellis Island in New York became the port of immigrants. This reception center situated in an island off the New Jersey coast became the first soil that immigrants stepped on upon entering the United States (pp.940). The ethnic neighborhood facilitated for what could have been an easier ass imilation for these immigrants. They recreated their own churches, synagogues, and even printed their own newspapers (p. 531). However, the influx immigration created not only social problems but economic and as well. Immigrants had a hard time finding decent jobs, often toiling in sweatshops, factories and mines. The atmosphere of nativism, where native-born should be favored instead of immigrants in just about anything, was developing.Native-born Americans started growing prejudice against them, threatened their entry in the country. The differences not only in language, dress and customs made Americans fear for this looming social changes. Immigrants were easily the subject of hostility. Literary problems also started to arise, especially for those non-English speaking immigrants. The Japanese, for instance, started learning the American way of living, learning English and sending their children to public schools (May, 1989, p. 481). However, this did not sit well with Americans. In 1906, the San Francisco school board issued an order to separate Japanese children from the other students. When the Japanese government protested, President Roosevelt intervened. An agreement in 1908 centered on an agreement limiting the number of Japanese immigrants to the country (Jordan and Litwack, 1991, p. 506). California, which in earlier years, resented the presence of Chinese immigrants, passed an Alien Land Law, which banned Japanese from possessing agriculture land (p. 506). As labor unions began to form around the country, immigrants were still not accepted.For one, they received fewer wage. For a dollar that an American-born laborer received, Italians received 84 cents, Hungarians 68 cents and others 54 cents (Katz, 1993, p. 73). Furthermore, Americans organized themselves to counter the growing number of immigrants. They formed group such as the American Protective Association, which was against Catholic immigrants. The largest labor union, the AFL or American Fede ration of Labor excluded immigrants. As America continued to plunge into urban growth, political corruption became prevalent. Americans blamed corruption as the cause of the growing immigration.In response to this, immigrants chose to remain loyal to their employees. As civic reformers talked of cleaning up the government and expressing their contempt on immigrants, the bosses showed appreciation to their employees by helping them process their naturalization proceedings and helping them when they got into trouble (Jordan and Litwack, 1991, p. 507). With regards to the labor union, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWWW) was formed in 1905 to include all workers regardless of race, skill and gender (Katz, 1993, p. 73). The outcome of this was that immigrants had started to stand up for what they believed in.racial segregation still existed but the process of keeping their identities intact had begun. An example was the creation of French-language parochial schools in New England. Put up by French Canadians, the schools had grown to 179 elementary and 28 high schools in America (Katz, 1993, p. 15). It was a clear sign that immigrants were determined to stay in the country. Child labor laws prohibited immigrant children to work, forced them instead to go to schools. With the compulsory education laws, children of immigrants became indoctrinated with the American values and English values (p. 642).Majority of these children were responsible of passing their learning to their non-English speaking parents. The years 1921-1945 saw a decrease in the number of immigrants. Following the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, the list of requirements and restriction on immigrants had tightened. For instance, immoral persons and anarchists were banned to enter US in 1903, illiterates in 1917 (McClenaghan, 1988, p. 170). By 1920, roughly 20 various immigrant groups were not able to step in the country (p. 170). The lives of American immigrants became harder, especially with th e mounting antiforeign and anti-Black sentiment around the country.This period ushered in the Progressive spirit, which focused on every aspect of American life, including those of immigrants. This time saw reforms in what Progressives deemed as the evils of the American system. Discrimination and prejudice still reigned in the country, despite the fact that American immigrants have been in the country for years One political problem they faced was religious problems. As World War I erupted, many Europeans fled their countries and sought refuge in America. The â€Å"new immigrants,† as they were known, were mostly Jewish or Roman Catholics (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, and Williams, 1991, p.630). American Protestants feared that their religious values would shadow the presence of Catholics. Some employees also declined Irish applicants, to the extent of posting an â€Å"Irish need not apply† signs (Jordan and Litwack, 1991, p. 483). The Catholic Church was then dominate d by the Irish, thus became the subject of religious persecution. Additionally, various religious discrepancies among immigrants themselves caused more misunderstanding. To cite, Russian and Polish Jews had different traditions from Sephardic and German Jews (Tindall and Shi, 1999, p. 945).In response to this issue, the immigrants continued to go about their own ways. They formed groups, recreated their own churches and synagogues. The outcome of doing this was it strengthened the unity among immigrant groups. They became more close-knit, living in homogenous areas of the city. It was also during this period when immigrants faced greater social and political problems. Agitation towards immigrant became full-blown. Xenophobia or the fear of strangers became the growing sentiment in the country. The â€Å"new immigrants† made Americans alarmed over â€Å"race suicide† (Jordan and Litwack, 1991, p.63). For instance, Kenneth Roberts wrote in the popular Saturday Evening Po st that Polish Jews should be avoided for they were â€Å"human parasites† and that immigrants of Nordic, Alpine, Mediterranean and Semitic ethnicity were not only â€Å"worthless and futile† but â€Å"good-for-nothing mongrels of Central America and Southeastern Europe† (p. 630). Another problem which immigrants faced which further planted the seeds of the sedition was the celebrated case involving two Italian anarchists named Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. An anarchist is someone who does not believe in any form of government.The two were arrested for a payroll robbery and murder in Massachusetts (p. 629). They were sentenced to death although evidence against them was inconclusive. They were electrocuted in 1927, amidst a series of worldwide remonstration (p. 629). Some people believed that they were innocent and the reason that they convicted was because of their political beliefs. Moreover, it was during this year when Red Scare pervaded the United S tates. A few years ago, communists, called Reds, took control of the Russian government. The communists believed that the government should take control of everything, like farms and factories.This train of thought contrasts with the American system of free enterprise (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, and Williams, 1991, p. 692). Americans soon began fearing that communists living in the US would do embark on this. It did not help that during this time, labor unrest was notorious, stimulating more trepidation on Americans. To assuage their fears, some Americans revived the Ku Klux Klan, which was exclusive for â€Å"native-born, white, gentile Americans† (p. 693). The organization, started during the Reconstruction heyday, attacked not only black people but immigrants, Jews, and American Indians (p.693). In the mid 1920s, the group boasted of around five million members (p. 694). The revival of the Ku Klux Klan, the Red Scare and the conviction of the Italian immigrants made Congr ess pass the Emergency Quota Act in 1921 which restricted immigration to the country (Bragdon, McCutchen and Ritchie, 1996, p. 717). Immigration was limited to 3 percent of the nationality already in the US (p. 717). The act became a permanent policy three years later and in 1927 a total of 150,000 immigrants were to be admitted per year, divided based on the 1920 census (p. 717).Japanese immigrants were completely excluded with the passing of the Japanese Exclusion Act in 1924. In response to the overwhelming problems that beset the immigrants, the immigrants had no choice but to comply with the laws. In some cases, like with the Japanese, the exclusion greatly damaged diplomatic relationship between the two countries. At the height of the war, Japanese-Americans were forced to move to â€Å"relocation camps† (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, and Williams, 1991, p. 738). Japanese-Americans who lived on the West Coast were accused of helping the Japanese sabotage the country (p. 7 38).For some immigrants, the restriction and growing anti-immigrant sentiment thrown at them were not enough to make them waver and give in. They remained steadfast and continued living in proximity, becoming stable in the process. They formed groups such as the La Orden de Hijos de America, which comprised white Chicano workers fighting for their U. S. citizenships (Katz, 1993, p. 15). Despite the discrimination and maltreatment, many Japanese- Americans volunteered during the War. It paid off. In 1988, the Senate issued a public apology and provided a tax-free payment of $20,000 to surviving Japanese-Americans (p.738). Following World War II, Unit IV, covering the years 1946-1976, life for immigrants was much better. Despite the inequalities in America, many people chose to live in the country, some sought political asylum and freedom from oppression. Others simply wanted to have a better future in the US. In the 60s, where call for civil rights where at the forefront, many Americ ans demanded for immigration reforms. In July 1963, President Kennedy recommended to scrap the national origins quota system (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson, and Williams, 1991, p . 882).The Immigration Act of 1965 restricted the number of immigrants to 170,000 per year per country and phased the national origins quota altogether (Brinkley, 2003, p. 835). In the 70s, immigrations increased to 433, 600 a year (Jordan and Litwack, 1991, p. 892). The 60s saw a surge in Mexicans migrating to the country. One literary problem they faced was language barrier. Some Latinos who established their presence in America could not speak nor understand English. This proved to be a big barrier in applying for jobs and immersing in the American life.Several employers took advantage of this and exploited Mexican workers. In response to this, several Mexican Americans founded labor organizations to help them get jobs and receive due benefits. In doing so, they strengthened their ethnicity. With regards to their language, in 1974, the United States Supreme Court approved the right of non-English speaking students to seek education in their own language. Thus, the idea of bilingualism was injected into American culture. After the Vietnam War, several Asians took refuge in America. The door of immigration opened again for the country.In the 80s, legal immigration in the US was estimated at 7 million people (Tindall and Shi, 1999, p. 1653). It was also the first time that majority of these immigrants did not come from Europe (p. 1653). The new wave of immigrants, mostly from Asia and Latin America, reopened the old wound of ethnic conflict. One social problem these new immigrants faced were still discrimination. In 1994, California passed Proposition 187, which banned illegal aliens to have access to school, medical care and other social services (Bragdon, McCutchen and Ritchie, 1996, p. 1019).This created friction between the legal immigrants and the illegal ones. Some preached that th is is completely bigotry. Adding more salt to the wound was the 1998 approval of ending bilingual education in California. In response to this problem, immigrants worked to enter the country legally. Although there are aliens flooding the country from time to time, Immigration Services has employed a stricter guideline. Several ethnic groups have also asserted themselves. The entry of ethnic studies program in school and universities is one way of embracing cultural differences between Americans and differences.This is one outcome that immigrants had wanted to achieve from the first time they stepped foot in the country. The presence of immigrants in the United States has earned the country the moniker of being a melting pot. The country is a multi-cultural society with each group respecting the other. Mayor Share James of Newark, New Jersey, noted that America’s diversity is its strength (Bragdon, McCutchen and Ritchie, 1996, p. 1020). This makes sense. Since the discovery o f America, it has always been varied. Different cultures and ethnic background make it unique, in the same vein that the differences provide a sense of heritage.It makes America culture colorful. It is sad for a fact that it took people years to understand this and that the forefathers of immigrants had to endure torture and humiliation but the appointment of the first Black American president in the country is probably a sign that yes, the country is ready for change. References Bragdon, H. , McCutchen, S. and Ritchie, D. (1996). History of a free nation. Ohio: Glencoe/ McGraw-Hill. Brinkley, A. (2003). American history a survey USA: McGraw-Hill. Divine, R. , Breen, T. H. , Fredrickson, G. , Williams, R. H. (1991). America the peopleand the dream. Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company. Jordan, W. and Litwack, L. (1991). The United States 7th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Katz, W. (1993). A history of multicultural America. USA: Sleek- Vaugh Company. May, E. (1989). A proud nation. Illinois: McDougal, Littell and Company. McClenaghan,W. (1988). Magruder’s American government Massachusetts: Prentice Hall. O’Neill, W. (2002). United States. In The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 29 USA: Britannica Inc. Tindall, G. B. , and Shi, D. (1999). America a narrative history. USA: W. W. Norton and Company.

Should Women Be In Combat Roles - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1329 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2019/08/15 Category Security Essay Level High school Topics: Women in Combat Essay Did you like this example? 1998, Canada and Sweden became the first countries to allow women in modern combat roles. Often men are capable of doing things that women arent and visa versa, by mandating a certain number of women on each board, California is stating that they dont believe women are capable of earning a seat at the table themselves. To be able to let women in is to force boards to accept them.   A big question is should women be able to take combat roles? It is true that not every women is fit for being in combat roles or being for an example a firefighter but neither is every boy. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Should Women Be In Combat Roles?" essay for you Create order Almost every woman   who is capable to be in a combat role and or any workforce. If they have completed a physical fitness course they are capable of being in any workforce that they are fit to be in. People should find out what they know with that person rather than experimenting and presenting research saying women arent capable.Other people say that women should not be in combat roles because men and women have different mindsets and hormonal things.A number of arguments have been raised in defense of military policy that bans women from combat roles.The prospect of women in ground combat or on the front-line in the military has proven to be a controversial issue throughout decades of war. This controversy stems from criticisms such as womens physicality versus mens, the association of sexual-related situations within the military, and a history of failed gender-integration training. The bottom line, however, is that women should not be allowed in front-line or ground combat unl ess they are willing and capable of meeting the same standards of testing as men. Basic differences in the physicality of men and women are one of the key aspects of why a womans combative role in the military is questioned. If this is the case, then, with regards to lower physical standards in combat training, how is it safe to allow female soldiers into the same dangerous environment as men? The argument of lower standards in testing is only brought into question because women are being used in ground combat and on the front-line, despite the fact that it is the law that only men be put in these roles. Only a select few countries allow women in ground-combat situations, seen in the statement that Australia is the latest nation to lift all restrictions on the positions in which women can serve in the armed forces, joining Canada, New Zealand, and Israel (Gajewski, 2011). Many military officials have found ways to circumvent this law, and have placed women in these roles with the thoughts that it could be beneficial. The loopholes in this law should be patched for safety purposes and fought in a different manner if need be. If this is an issue that many are willing to overlook, then it should be also be possible for the law to change. Women who wish to be a part of ground combat and the front-line should have the right if they choose to do so, but only once they have reached equal physical standards as the men who share their same position. Intuition of Equality and Womens Rights are reasons that are used to argue for the side of women in combat, which basically states that women should be able to do what they please and are created equal to men. There are many reason why people say that women should not be in combat roles. Physical ability is one of the cases, while the majority of jobs in the armed forces are open equally to men and women, there are some to which women are just not physically suited. The standards of physical fitness have been set to suit men, and women attempting to reach them will over-stretch themselves.   In addition, combat units engage in activities designed to suit mens capabilities. Women serving in integrated units will suffer higher injury rates as a result of this. Efficiency is another,   some women will be able to meet the required standards, but most will not. While integration of women into combat is possible for those qualified, the small number versus the additional logistical, regulatory and disciplinary costs associated with integration do not make it a worthwhile move. Also, morale and cohesion, having women serving in direct combat will hamper missions effectiveness by hurting unit morale and cohesion. Military readiness, pregnancy can affect the deployability of a unit when the unit has a disproportionate number of women understaffed. Tradition, men especially those likely to enlist, maintain traditional gender roles. In some situations, men are may act foolishly to protect women in their combat units. Harassment and resentment, of the presence of women in a hyper masculine military subculture would likely become a problem.Abuse by enemy,both male and female prisoners are at risk of torture and rape, but misogynistic societies may be more willing to abuse women prisoners. Career advancement, Men and women are both given opportunities to join the arm, but with the understanding that different roles require different physical, emotional attributes. This should mean i turn that there are multiple routes to promotion so that women have equal opportunities without having to fight take art in combat operations.    Other say women should be allowed to be in combat roles because they are able to do anything that men are able to do. My personal experience has been that the (principles) of leadership and teambuilding apply equally to women as to men. As long as you protect qualification standards and give no impression that anyone if getting a free ride, integration, while not without bumps, will be much less dramatic than people envision. ~Major Elanor Taylor, Canadian Military and the first women to lead an infantry company in combat. Ability vs gender, as long as an applicant is qualified for a position, ones gender is arbitrary. It is easy to recruit and deploy women who are in better shape than many men sent into combat. It is possible to calibrate recruitment and training standards to women. Extra pre-training for muscle building can also be used to reduce female injury rates. In modern high technology battlefield technical expertise and decision-making skills are increasingly more valu able than simple brute strength. Military readinesses, Allowing a mixed gender force keeps the military strong. The all-volunteer forces are severely troubled by falling retention and recruitment rates. Widening the applicant pool for all jobs guarantees more willing recruits, Women, who choose to become active combat soldiers, are unlikely to shirk their duty by becoming pregnant after a call-up as these women   have willingly joined the army. Effectiveness. The blanket restriction for women limits the ability of commanders in theater to pick the most capable person for the job. Tradition, training will be required to facilitate the integration of women into combat units. Cultures change over time and the masculine subculture can evolve too. Many previously masculine professions have been successfully opened to women over the past century.Modern warfare and public support in the modern world of combat (Afghanistan, Iraq), all women serving in the military are exposed to front-line risks. Support for women serving in armed force has not wavered as warfare has changed, a clear sign that the necessity of women serving in combat is recognized. Cultural differences demographic. Women are more effective in some circumstances than men. Allowing women to serve doubles the talent pool for delicate and sensitive jobs that require interpersonal skills not every soldier has. Having a wider personnel base allows militaries to have the best and most diplomatic soldiers working to end conflict quickly. Career Advancement, as combat duty is usually regarded as necessary for promotion to senior officer positions, denying female personnel this experience sexism. Women have to be give the same opportunities as men. In the army in order to have the same opportunities they have to be   exposed to the same risks.

Increasing Prevalence Of Class Action Waivers - 1166 Words

This part of the Note provides a background of the increasing prevalence of class action waivers in arbitration. The first challenge towards them, as explained below, involved the California state contract law doctrine of unconscionability. Nonetheless, the Supreme Court eventually struck down this argument but the decision eventually sparked the now controversial circuit split which has led to the Supreme Court granting certiorari to grant clarity on the issue of class action arbitration waivers. A. The Unconscionability Doctrine and the State Court Challenges Arising Out of California Before the current developments, class action waivers in arbitration agreements came under fire through state law and the unconscionability doctrine.†¦show more content†¦In June, 2010, the Supreme Court issued an opinion which provided â€Å"a party may not be compelled under the FAA to submit to class arbitration unless there is a contractual basis for concluding that the party agreed to do so.† This case served as a precursor for the eventual maiming of the unconscionability doctrine as applied to class action waivers in arbitration. Ten months later in April, 2011, the Supreme Court released an opinion directed at the issue of unconscionability law in ATT Mobility, LLC. V. Concepcion. Although Concepcion involved a consumer claim, this decision struck down state unconscionability challenges under two separate factors. First, the Supreme Court reasoned that the Ninth Circuit and California Supreme Court implemented a process in Gentry and Discover which disfavored arbitration because it went above and beyond the state law rules of contract interpretation, therefore making the process unenforceable. Second, the Court determined the California Supreme Court, which determined class action waivers were unenforceable due to unconscionability, interfered with the purpose of the FAA to avoid judicial hostility towards arbitration and to promote arbitration in accordance with the parties’ agreements. In conclusion, the Supreme Court specifically explained the â€Å"point of affording parties discretion in desi gning arbitration processes is to allow for efficient, streamlined procedures tailored to the type ofShow MoreRelatedMedicare Policy Analysis447966 Words   |  1792 Pages 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. Relation to other requirements. Prohibiting discrimination in health care. Whistleblower protection. 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The Social Fabric Of Late Eighteenth- And Early Nineteenth...

Jane Austen s novel is principally concerned with the social fabric of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century England, a patriarchal society in which men held the economic and social power. In an often satirical portrait of the men and women attempting to gain a livelihood, Austen ironically points out faults in the system, raising questions about the values of English society and the power structure of the country. The novel is also engaged in an ideological debate that drives its plot and defines the essence of its main character. The precise nature of this balance is not necessarily clear, and despite what seems to be a happy marriage, it may not be entirely possible to reconcile Elizabeth s independence and naturalness†¦show more content†¦Darcy play the role of rich men. Mr and Mrs. Bennet are the parents of five unwed daughters. And they have conflicting thoughts about the arrival of the rich neighbours. Mr. Bennet thinks nothing of it, and has no new thoughts about the arrival of Bingley and Darcy. Mrs. Bennet sees flashing lights. She views it as the perfect chance to automatically place a few of her five daughters into the rich community. Marrying off her daughters serves the main purpose in Mrs. Bennet’s life. Mrs. Bennet wants her husband to go and make a greeting to the new crowd. Her plans are to get in contact with them and make aware her five bachelor daughters. Mrs. Bennet encourages her daughter, Jane, to set her sights on Mr. Bingley. Mr. Bennet’s sarcastic comments prove his disconcert on the whole topic. When Jane is invited to meet with Mr. Bingley and his sister, Mrs. Bennet suggests that she go by horseback in hopes that she could probably fall sick and extend her stay. Mrs. Bennet’s’ mind is always thinking of ways to marry off her daughters. Her idea works to perfection and Jane ends up staying longer. Mrs. Bennet goes to work again at the arrival of Mr. Collins, Mr. Bennet’s cousin. Mr. Collins stays at the Bennet house for a short time. He will inherit Longbourn when Mr. Bennet dies, since he will be the only close male relative. Mr. Collins first intentions are toward Jane, but, Ms. Bennet informs him of Bingley. Collin then changes his target to Elizabeth. Mrs. Bennet is

Library of Congress Free Essays

Years ago, Martin Luther King had a dream that all men and women would be equal, all students would be equal. Our laws and progression of civil rights and immigration has changed the United States Public Education System. Racial inequality and color prejudice has damaged the United States; affecting the American education system through legislation meant to help students. We will write a custom essay sample on Library of Congress or any similar topic only for you Order Now The differences in culture background and heritage are being traversed. Borders are supposedly being crossed. Educational theories and classroom practices are taking up new forms in order to conform and meet the educational needs of the global societies. Educators and teachers are being expected to share views and recognize values from different cultures, races, societies and ethnic groups. They are expected to move outside the system and custom of the dominant society and incorporate beliefs other than those they are accustomed with. Our laws and progression of Civil Rights and immigration has changed the United States public education system. The challenges that face our nation’s children relates to the civil right movements and immigration laws that have guided us to a direction of multicultural education. During the civil rights movement, there were two America’s, a black America and a white America. The school, bathrooms, water fountains, restaurants, bus seats, libraries, movie theaters, hospital floors, and even the line to see Santa Clause were all segregated based on the color of skin. African Americans went to school four months out of the year because they needed to help earn incomes the rest of the months. Their schools had no cafeteria, most with outside bathrooms; and their books were passed down from the white schools so they were all out of date (AARP, LCCR, Library of Congress, 2004). The school building that contained African American students were falling apart. The classes were overcrowded with too many students, and not enough room for all the needed classes and materials. For the most part, these students had teachers that were substitutes who didn’t know what they were doing. The teachers that were in these schools had fixed values for these students and did not provide curriculum that was interesting or pertained to the students who were learning. The assumption of teachers was that these African American students did not deserve â€Å"a great deal in life and that a little, even a very little, (a very little) for a Negro child is a great deal more than he or she has earned† (Kozol, 1990). Complaints were being vocalized with the school districts letting white students ride the bus to attend white schools, and black students had to walk to their school when they lived right next to an â€Å"all white† school (Rafferty, 1965). In 1951, the Supreme Court finally had to face and rule on the subject of Civil Rights. A group called the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), created in 1909 to work towards eliminating segregation and discrimination, came together in a court case Brown versus Board of Education. African Americans had started filing suits against the educational systems as early as 1845, but the Supreme Court combined five cases to hear in 1951. The issues brought before the court was because of school conditions, segregation, deficient curriculum, pupil to teacher ratio, teacher training, extracurricular activity programs offered, transportation deficiencies, and of course teacher salaries (Brown Foundation, 1996). The discriminatory environment derived from civil rights and immigration issues unlocked, and then caused the world to see that human tendencies are to prejudge, discriminate against, and stereotype people based on their ethnic, religious, physical, or cultural characteristics. In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (347 U. S. 483), also called Brown I ruled by Chief Justice Warren, acknowledged learning to be the most significant task of state and local government and â€Å"repudiated the separate but equal doctrine†, deciding that â€Å"racially segregated schools were inherently unequal† (Cambron-McCabe et al. , 2004). The decision had great impact and important to the civil rights movement. The Supreme Court ruled that school had no place for â€Å"separate but equal† status (AARP, LCCR, Library of Congress, 2004). A year later the Supreme Court decision in Brown II defined how and when school desegregation would be achieved because there was no standard or deadline set in Brown I (Orfield Eaton, 1996). The legal precedence of this time caused far reaching social and ideological implications that brought about changes in the 1960’s and beyond. On the other hand, the legal wrangling did not make immigration and civil right issues disappear because of the ambiguity of the legal decisions. The 1960’s brought about race riots all over the U. S. , deaths because of race, and more laws that declared discrimination illegal (http://www. cnn. com/EVENTS/1997/mlk/links. html%20). On January 20, 1964, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn into the Presidency, after the sudden death of President John F. Kennedy. As America mourned the death of JFK, President Lyndon B. Johnson placed his hand on the Holy Bible that was being held by his wife and took the oath of office. On that particular day, Lyndon B. Johnson launched his new program called â€Å"the Great Society. † The agenda was intended to produce a better quality of life for all Americans (Campbell, 1965). Reporters knew the Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson as a â€Å"legislative miracle. † In fact, Dick West of the Dallas Morning News wrote, â€Å"Mr. Truman couldn’t get started on a civil rights bill, because a rebellious congress passed an immigration law over a veto. Jack Kennedy took one whirl at federal aid to education, and then backed off. Then he tried to get Congress to set up a Department of Housing and Urban Development with Cabinet Status and was turned down in the House 264 to 150. † On the other hand, West writes that President Johnson was able to get these laws passed exactly the way he wanted them, thus being named â€Å"The Congressional Magician† (West, 1965 p. 2). President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on July 2, 1964, during a luncheon honoring late President Abraham Lincoln in the East room of the White House. The bill was about discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964). â€Å"The President sat at a small table in the center with racks holding 72 pens, which was an insufficient amount. † He actually used over 100 pens to sign this triumphant bill into law (â€Å"Big Audience†, 1964). Robert F. Kennedy sat in the front row, Martin Luther King sat in the second row, and other senators and cabinet members attended (â€Å"Big Audience†, 1964). President Johnson’s speech was â€Å"swift but had great emphasis as he called on all Americans to close the springs of racial poison and eliminate the last vestiges of injustice in our beloved America† (â€Å"Big Audience†, 1964). The President spoke of the challenge that Lincoln bestowed upon America asking for â€Å"preservation of the union, enlargement of liberties for America and for being true to the Declaration of Independence which gives liberty to all. † The speech was a direct challenge for all Americans to ensure that all people including Black American’s will be a part of a â€Å"complete and equal† society (Negro Due, 1965). In 1968, the Supreme Court decision on Green v. County School Board of New Kent County gave the students the option to transfer from a black to a white school. The ruling states, â€Å"That schools must dismantle segregated dual systems root and branch and that desegregation must be achieved with respect to facilities, staff, faculty, extra-curricular activities, and transportation. † Because the Southern United States were fighting against the rulings of the Supreme Court because of their dissatisfaction of desegregation the case Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education in Mississippi ruled that desegregation must be achieved in every district at once (Orfield Eaton, 1996). Multi-cultural education is a program seeking to revise and reform both schooling and the political and cultural context of formal schooling and studying. It was designed to have a better impact to society by reducing racial tolerance brought about because of immigration and civil right problems that has plagued our nation. Several categories of programs that are designed encompass not only to restructure and reform subjects and curriculums at school but also to generate and increase contact among races. They are designed primarily to bridge the gap among races. However, instead of harmonious co-existence and peace being attained, the proposed inclusion of cultures to curriculum, poses lots of intriguing questions. The public is uncertain with their thoughts regarding the changing of curriculum. Often times, multi-cultural education has become the topic of numerous debates and disputes, resulting to a further division of the nation. Multicultural education is intended to decrease if not totally abolish race, ethnic and gender divisions. By helping students achieve the necessary skills and by guiding them they are being prepared in facing the challenges they would soon be encountering. Students are trained to equip themselves with the attitudes needed in order to survive in the real world. However, before such programs can be implemented, a thorough understanding of the real issue at hand must first be achieved. Factors such as demography, social class, funding, quality of educators, student’s cultural backgrounds and public interest should be carefully considered and taken in to account. References AARP, LCCR, Library of Congress (2004). Save Our History: Voices of Civil Rights. The History Channel: The Hearst Corporation. Big Audience: Over 200 Guests See Bill Signed (1964, July 3). Dallas Morning News. Section 1 Page 8. Brown Foundation (1996). Brown VS Board of Education: About the Case. Retrieved October 1, 2007 from http://brownvboard. org/summary/. Cambron-McCabe, N. H. , McCarthy, M. M. , Thomas, S. (2004). Public School Law 5th Edition. Pearson Education Inc: Boston. p. 149 Campbell, M. (1965). President Johnson Chosen 1965 Newsmaker of the Year. Dallas Morning News, December 24: page A12. Kozol, Jonathan (1990). Death at an Early Age. New York: Penguin Group. Negro’s Due Full Rights, Johnson Says. (1965, February 13). Dallas Morning News, Section A Page 1 Orfield, G Eaton, S. (1996). Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal of Brown vs. Board of Education. New York, NY. The New Press. Rafferty, Max (1965). Children Should Be Taught Sweep, Drama of U. S. Past. Dallas Morning News, December 16: Page A29 West, D. (1965). Johnson’s Legislative Miracle. Dallas Morning News, September 26: Section C page 2. How to cite Library of Congress, Papers